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As daunting as hyperinflation was when he took office, so was the breakdown in security and the growing strength of the Shining Path guerrilla group, which embraced Maoism.

"Communism survived the deaths of Stalin and Mao, but Stalinism and Maoism did not."

Many on the left had erred on what was perhaps the most important issue of the 20th century, global totalitarianism: Too many had been soft on Soviet Communism or Chinese Maoism.

In 1977, Lévy wrote “Barbarism With a Human Face,” in which he rejected Marxism and Maoism.

Unlike other Chinese communists who turned away from hard-core Maoism after the Cultural Revolution, Mr. Xi appears to have embraced the punishment and humiliation Mao used to maintain personal power under communist ideology.