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“There’s been a public health legacy where sanitary engineering practices and regulators considered sewage a waste, it was something to be avoided, something to be feared,” said Brad Coffey of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California.

He received a bachelor’s degree in civil engineering in 1947 and master’s degree in sanitary engineering a year later, both from Johns Hopkins.

Sanitary engineering; getting rid of mosquito breeding sites; and swamp drainage are some of the interventions that have helped in the past and have proven to be sustainable solutions.

The longer rationing measures are delayed, the more extreme they will be, said Jose Carlos Mierzwa, a University of Sao Paulo professor who focuses on sanitary engineering.

A shot from the 1870s of the facade of Victoria underground station shows what Ovenden calls a "shouty" hoarding for "TP Beattie, Specialist in Plumbing and Sanitary Engineering" as almost upstaging the station name.